German Predicate Lexicon Fragment

@cite{qing-uegaki-2025} @cite{song-1996} @cite{solstad-bott-2024}

German causative and attitude verb entries, extending VerbCore with the German inflectional paradigm (3sg present, Präteritum, Partizip II).

Causative verbs

German has both analytic and lexical causatives:

• lassen — permissive COMPACT causative (like French laisser)
• machen — productive analytic causative ("make")
• töten, zerbrechen — lexical COMPACT causatives

Attitude verbs

German preferential attitudes pattern with other Indo-European languages:

• hoffen / wünschen — Class 3 (positive, C-distributive, anti-rogative)
• fürchten / befürchten — Class 2 (negative, C-distributive, takes questions)
• sich sorgen — Class 1 (uncertainty-based, non-C-distributive)

structure Fragments.German.Predicates.GermanVerbEntryextends Core.Verbs.VerbCore : Type

German verb entry: extends VerbCore with German inflectional paradigm.

• form : String
• complementType : ComplementType
• subjectEntailments : Option Semantics.Lexical.Verb.EntailmentProfile.EntailmentProfile
• objectEntailments : Option Semantics.Lexical.Verb.EntailmentProfile.EntailmentProfile
• controlType : ControlType
• altComplementType : Option ComplementType
• altControlType : ControlType
• unaccusative : Bool
• voiceType : Option VoiceType
• passivizable : Bool
• implicitObj : Option ImplicitInterp
• implicitGoal : Option ImplicitInterp
• speechActVerb : Bool
• vendlerClass : Option Semantics.Tense.Aspect.LexicalAspect.VendlerClass
• degreeAchievementScale : Option Semantics.Lexical.Verb.DegreeAchievement.DegreeAchievementScale
• verbIncClass : Option Semantics.Events.Krifka1998.VerbIncClass
• presupType : Option PresupTriggerType
• projectionBehavior : Option ProjectionBehavior
• selectsDimension : Option Semantics.Probabilistic.Measurement.Dimension
• cosType : Option Semantics.Lexical.Verb.ChangeOfState.CoSType
• implicativeBuilder : Option Nadathur2024.Implicative.ImplicativeBuilder
• causativeBuilder : Option NadathurLauer2020.CausativeBuilder
• causalSource : Option Semantics.Causation.PsychCausation.CausalSource
• opaqueContext : Bool
• attitudeBuilder : Option AttitudeBuilder
• takesQuestionBase : Bool
• complementSig : Option NaturalLogic.EntailmentSig
• senseTag : SenseTag
• levinClass : Option LevinClass
• rootProfile : Option RootProfile
• form3sg : String

  3sg present (er/sie/es)

• formPast : String

  Past (Präteritum)

• formPastPart : String

  Past participle (Partizip II)

• rootType : Option RootType

  Root type (@cite{beavers-etal-2021}): result vs property concept. Only set for change-of-state verbs where the distinction is applicable.

instance Fragments.German.Predicates.instReprGermanVerbEntry : Repr GermanVerbEntry

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• Fragments.German.Predicates.instReprGermanVerbEntry = { reprPrec := Fragments.German.Predicates.instReprGermanVerbEntry.repr }

def Fragments.German.Predicates.instReprGermanVerbEntry.repr : GermanVerbEntry → ℕ → Std.Format

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instance Fragments.German.Predicates.instBEqGermanVerbEntry : BEq GermanVerbEntry

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• Fragments.German.Predicates.instBEqGermanVerbEntry = { beq := Fragments.German.Predicates.instBEqGermanVerbEntry.beq }

def Fragments.German.Predicates.instBEqGermanVerbEntry.beq : GermanVerbEntry → GermanVerbEntry → Bool

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• Fragments.German.Predicates.instBEqGermanVerbEntry.beq x✝¹ x✝ = false

def Fragments.German.Predicates.lassen : GermanVerbEntry

lassen — COMPACT permissive causative (like French laisser). "Sie ließ ihn gehen" = "She let him go."

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.machen : GermanVerbEntry

machen — productive analytic causative. "Das macht mich traurig" = "That makes me sad."

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.toeten : GermanVerbEntry

töten — lexical COMPACT causative ("kill" = tot + -en). Deadjectival causative: tot "dead" → töten "make dead".

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.zerbrechen : GermanVerbEntry

zerbrechen — lexical COMPACT causative ("break"). Prefix zer- marks destructive result state.

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.hoffen : GermanVerbEntry

hoffen — "hope" (Class 3: positive, C-distributive, anti-rogative).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.fuerchten : GermanVerbEntry

fürchten — "fear" (Class 2: negative, C-distributive, takes questions).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.befuerchten : GermanVerbEntry

befürchten — "be afraid / apprehend" (Class 2: negative, C-distributive).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.wuenschen : GermanVerbEntry

wünschen — "wish" (Class 3: positive, C-distributive, anti-rogative).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.sorgen : GermanVerbEntry

sich sorgen — "worry" (Class 1: uncertainty-based, non-C-distributive).

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German interpersonal occasion verbs presuppose a prior occasioning eventuality. The subject performs an interpersonal action triggered by the object's prior behavior.

These verbs were tested for projectivity in Experiments 1–3 of the
S&P paper and for IC bias (as "agent-evocator" verbs) in @cite{solstad-bott-2022}. 

def Fragments.German.Predicates.bestrafen : GermanVerbEntry

bestrafen — "punish": presupposes the object did something wrong

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.belohnen : GermanVerbEntry

belohnen — "reward": presupposes the object did something praiseworthy

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.loben : GermanVerbEntry

loben — "praise": presupposes praiseworthy behavior by the object

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.kritisieren : GermanVerbEntry

kritisieren — "criticise": presupposes the object did something wrong

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.danken : GermanVerbEntry

danken — "thank": presupposes the object did something helpful

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.verklagen : GermanVerbEntry

verklagen — "sue": presupposes the object caused harm

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.gratulieren : GermanVerbEntry

gratulieren — "congratulate": presupposes the object achieved something

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.zurechtweisen : GermanVerbEntry

zurechtweisen — "rebuke": presupposes the object misbehaved

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Simplex manner/activity verbs

These verbs have no inherent result state. They cannot form -ung nominalizations on their own, but can participate in resultative constructions (as the M predicate).

def Fragments.German.Predicates.haemmern : GermanVerbEntry

hämmern — "hammer": manner-of-action activity. Used in resultatives (Er hämmerte das Metall platt) and -ung tests (*Platt-hämmer-ung).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.malen : GermanVerbEntry

malen — "paint": activity. Contrast: *Mal-ung vs Be-mal-ung ✓. The be- prefix creates a complex change-of-state event.

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.kuessen : GermanVerbEntry

küssen — "kiss": activity. Used in RSP examples (wach-küssen).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.fuehren : GermanVerbEntry

führen — "lead": activity. Base for ein-führen (introduce). Führ-ung is an -ung nominalization but only with the meaning "leadership" (RN), not a CEN of simplex führen.

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.rauben : GermanVerbEntry

rauben — "rob": activity. Contrast: *arm be-raubt (RSP + prefix = blocked) vs arm geraubt (RSP + simplex = OK).

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Change-of-state verbs

These verbs have inherent result states and can form -ung nominalizations (complex event reading). Their root type determines the canonical v alloseme via VAlloseme.fromRootType.

def Fragments.German.Predicates.brechen : GermanVerbEntry

brechen — "break": achievement with result root. The broken state entails prior change (you can't be broken without having been broken). Used in RSP data (Hans hat den Stock kaputt gebrochen).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.frieren : GermanVerbEntry

frieren — "freeze": achievement, unaccusative. PC root: the frozen state does not entail prior change (ice can be perpetually frozen). Das Wasser fror fest — used in RSP data.

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Prefix verbs (complex event structure)

Prefix verbs have complex event structure: the prefix creates a change-of-state interpretation from the root. They can typically form -ung nominalizations (CEN reading).

def Fragments.German.Predicates.beobachten : GermanVerbEntry

beobachten — "observe" (be- prefix): accomplishment. The running example in @cite{benz-2025} Ch. 3 — all three nominalization readings (CEN, RN, CCN) are available for Beobachtung.

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.einfuehren : GermanVerbEntry

einführen — "introduce" (ein- particle): accomplishment. Ein-führ-ung is a productive -ung nominalization. Demonstrates that particle verbs with complex event structure can undergo -ung nominalization (particles-as-heads solution).

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.verbinden : GermanVerbEntry

verbinden — "connect" (ver- prefix): accomplishment. Ver-bind-ung — productive -ung nominalization.

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.allVerbs : List GermanVerbEntry

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def Fragments.German.Predicates.lookup (form : String) : Option GermanVerbEntry

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• Fragments.German.Predicates.lookup form = List.find? (fun (x : Fragments.German.Predicates.GermanVerbEntry) => x.form == form) Fragments.German.Predicates.allVerbs

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.occasion_verbs_soft_trigger : bestrafen.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ belohnen.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ loben.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ kritisieren.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ danken.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ verklagen.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ gratulieren.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger ∧ zurechtweisen.presupType = some Core.Verbs.PresupTriggerType.softTrigger

All 8 German occasion verbs are soft presupposition triggers.

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.occasion_verbs_sense_tag : bestrafen.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion ∧ belohnen.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion ∧ loben.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion ∧ kritisieren.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion

All German occasion verbs use the .occasion sense tag.

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.occasion_verbs_are_action : bestrafen.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion ∧ belohnen.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion ∧ kritisieren.senseTag = Core.Verbs.SenseTag.occasion

German occasion verbs are interpersonal action verbs (not semi-modal). Their agent-subject behavior follows from being non-occasion senseTag (unlike English semi-modal occasion verbs which have experiencer subjects).

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.lassen_is_enable : lassen.causativeBuilder = some NadathurLauer2020.Builder.CausativeBuilder.enable

lassen uses .enable builder (permissive).

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.machen_is_make : machen.causativeBuilder = some NadathurLauer2020.Builder.CausativeBuilder.make

machen uses .make builder.

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.lassen_machen_different : lassen.causativeBuilder ≠ machen.causativeBuilder

lassen and machen have different builders.

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.lexical_causatives_use_make : toeten.causativeBuilder = some NadathurLauer2020.Builder.CausativeBuilder.make ∧ zerbrechen.causativeBuilder = some NadathurLauer2020.Builder.CausativeBuilder.make

Lexical causatives (töten, zerbrechen) use .make.

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.hoffen_is_positive : hoffen.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential (Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.degreeComparison Semantics.Attitudes.Preferential.AttitudeValence.positive)) ∧ wuenschen.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential (Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.degreeComparison Semantics.Attitudes.Preferential.AttitudeValence.positive))

hoffen and wünschen are positive preferential (Class 3).

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.fuerchten_is_negative : fuerchten.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential (Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.degreeComparison Semantics.Attitudes.Preferential.AttitudeValence.negative)) ∧ befuerchten.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential (Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.degreeComparison Semantics.Attitudes.Preferential.AttitudeValence.negative))

fürchten and befürchten are negative preferential (Class 2).

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.sorgen_is_uncertainty : sorgen.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.uncertaintyBased)

sich sorgen is uncertainty-based (Class 1).

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.fuerchten_matches_crosslinguistic : fuerchten.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential (Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.degreeComparison Semantics.Attitudes.Preferential.AttitudeValence.negative))

German fürchten matches Japanese 恐れ osore and Turkish kork-: all are Class 2 negative preferential (degreeComparison.negative).

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.sorgen_matches_crosslinguistic : sorgen.attitudeBuilder = some (Core.Verbs.AttitudeBuilder.preferential Core.Verbs.PreferentialBuilder.uncertaintyBased)

German sich sorgen matches Japanese 心配 shinpai and Turkish endişelen-: all are Class 1 uncertainty-based.

theorem Fragments.German.Predicates.lassen_matches_french_laisser : lassen.causativeBuilder = some NadathurLauer2020.Builder.CausativeBuilder.enable

German lassen matches French laisser: both use .enable (permissive).