@cite{wood-2023} — Icelandic Nominalizations and Allosemy

@cite{wood-2023} @cite{wood-2015} @cite{wood-marantz-2017}

Icelandic Nominalizations and Allosemy. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198865155.001.0001

Overview

@cite{wood-2023} argues that Icelandic deverbal nominalizations are built on the structure [nP n [vP v √ROOT]] (a complex head, NOT a phrasal VoiceP), and that the ambiguity between CEN, SEN, and RN readings arises from allosemy of v and n — one syntactic terminal with multiple context-dependent meanings:

• CEN (Complex Event Nominal): v = eventive, n = Ø (identity). The noun inherits the verb's meaning, including event variable and argument structure (Ch. 5, (5.14)).
• SEN (Simple Event Nominal): v = Ø, n = SEN alloseme. Event reading without full argument structure (Ch. 5, (5.6)).
• Result/Product Nominal: v = eventive, n = result alloseme. Entity whose existence results from the event (Ch. 6, (6.30)).
• Simple State: v = Ø, n = state alloseme. State reading (e.g. aðdáun 'admiration' as lasting state) (Ch. 1, (1.18)).
• Simple Entity: v = Ø, n = entity alloseme. Entity reading with no event connection (e.g. þvottur 'laundry') (Ch. 5, (5.13)).

Key Claims Formalized

1. No Voice in nominalizations (Ch. 3, Ch. 5): The external argument is introduced by a Poss head (= i* from @cite{wood-marantz-2017}), NOT by Voice. Voice diagnostics in nominalizations really test for agentive semantics, which Poss can also provide.

2. Borer's Generalization (Ch. 5 §5.1.5): CEN reading entails the existence of a morphologically related verb with the same meaning. This follows from the architecture: CEN requires v, and n cannot trigger root suppletion past v.

3. P-prefixing patterns (Ch. 4): Three patterns of preposition-verb interaction in nominalizations, depending on whether P conditions root meaning.

4. marg- and endur- diagnostics (Ch. 6): Iterative marg- 'many-' is only compatible with CEN; repetitive endur- 're-' is compatible with CEN, SEN, and result/product RN, but not simple entity RN.

5. -vaeða verbs always compositional (Ch. 6 §6.5): Because -vaeða is a compound (√VAEÐA adjoins to v), the root cannot interact idiosyncratically with n past v. Therefore -vaeðing nominals never have idiosyncratic RN readings.

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.wood_cen_derivation : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.eventive Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.zero = some Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent

Wood's reading derivation: v and n alloseme combinations.

@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 5 (5.4a–e):

• v eventive + n zero → CEN (noun = verb meaning)
• v zero + n simpleEvent → SEN (event-entity reading)
• v zero + n entity → simple entity (entity reading)
• v eventive + n result → result/product (entity from event)

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.wood_sen_derivation : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.zero Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.simpleEvent = some Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.wood_simpleEntity_derivation : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.zero Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.entity = some Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.wood_result_derivation : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.eventive Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.result = some Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.wood_state_derivation : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.zero Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.state = some Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleState

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.cen_sen_v_difference : (Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.eventive Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.zero).isSome = true ∧ (Morphology.DM.Allosemy.readingFromAllosemes Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.zero Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NAlloseme.simpleEvent).isSome = true ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.eventive ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.VAlloseme.zero

CEN and SEN differ in which head contributes eventive meaning: CEN = v eventive (event from verb), SEN = v zero (event from n).

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.five_readings_distinct : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleState ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleState ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleState ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity ∧ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleState ≠ Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity

The five reading types from @cite{wood-2023} Ch. 1 (1.18) are pairwise distinct.

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.nomHasVoice : Bool

Whether a nominalization has Voice (it doesn't, per @cite{wood-2023}).

@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 5 §5.1.3: "I will assume, as discussed in Chapter 3, that there is in fact no Voice head in the structure." The external argument is introduced by Poss (= i*), not Voice.

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.nomHasVoice = false

inductive Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.PossReading : Type

Poss head semantics: parallel to Voice but for nominals. @cite{wood-2023} Ch. 5 (5.22): ⟦Poss⟧ ↔ λxλe. agent(x)(e) / __ agentive nP

@cite{wood-marantz-2017}: Voice and Poss are the same head i*, appearing in different categories (vP vs nP).

• agent : PossReading
• possessor : PossReading
• experiencer : PossReading

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instDecidableEqPossReading : DecidableEq PossReading

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instDecidableEqPossReading x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPossReading : BEq PossReading

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPossReading = { beq := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPossReading.beq }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPossReading.beq : PossReading → PossReading → Bool

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPossReading.beq x✝ y✝ = (x✝.ctorIdx == y✝.ctorIdx)

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPossReading : Repr PossReading

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPossReading = { reprPrec := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPossReading.repr }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPossReading.repr : PossReading → ℕ → Std.Format

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def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.possReading (nPisCEN : Bool) : PossReading

Poss gets agent reading only with agentive (CEN) nP. @cite{wood-2023} Ch. 5 (5.24): "i* ↔ λxλe. agent(x)(e) / __ (agentive event)"

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theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.agent_only_with_cen : possReading true = PossReading.agent

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.possessor_without_cen : possReading false = PossReading.possessor

inductive Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.PPrefixPattern : Type

Three patterns of preposition-verb interaction in nominalizations.

@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 4:

• Pattern 1: P conditions root meaning, must be prefixed, can also appear as complement PP (ráða um → umráðun á)
• Pattern 2: P conditions root meaning, must be prefixed, cannot be doubled (gera við → viðgerð á, not *viðgerð við)
• Pattern 3: P does NOT condition root meaning, is not prefixed (hugsa um → hugsun um, not umhugsun)

• pConditionsDoubles : PPrefixPattern
• pConditionsNoDouble : PPrefixPattern
• pDoesNotCondition : PPrefixPattern

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instDecidableEqPPrefixPattern : DecidableEq PPrefixPattern

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instDecidableEqPPrefixPattern x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPPrefixPattern : BEq PPrefixPattern

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPPrefixPattern = { beq := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPPrefixPattern.beq }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPPrefixPattern.beq : PPrefixPattern → PPrefixPattern → Bool

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqPPrefixPattern.beq x✝ y✝ = (x✝.ctorIdx == y✝.ctorIdx)

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPPrefixPattern : Repr PPrefixPattern

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPPrefixPattern = { reprPrec := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPPrefixPattern.repr }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprPPrefixPattern.repr : PPrefixPattern → ℕ → Std.Format

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def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.PPrefixPattern.ofNom (n : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.IcelandicNom) : Option PPrefixPattern

Pattern assignment for fragment nominalizations.

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theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.vidgerd_pattern2 : PPrefixPattern.ofNom Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.vidgerd = some PPrefixPattern.pConditionsNoDouble

P-prefixed nominalizations use pattern 2 (no doubling).

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.umonnun_pattern2 : PPrefixPattern.ofNom Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.umonnun = some PPrefixPattern.pConditionsNoDouble

inductive Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix : Type

Verbal prefixes that diagnose nominalization readings.

@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 6 §6.4:

• marg- 'many-' adds iterativity to the event. Only compatible with CEN, because only CEN has an event variable at the v level.
• endur- 're-' adds presupposition of prior eventuality. Compatible with CEN, SEN, and result/product RN (all have event variables), but NOT with simple entity RN or simple state (no event variable). Per (6.46)–(6.53): endurprentun 'reprint' (result RN) is OK, but endur-þvottur 'laundry' (simple entity) is not.

• marg : VerbalPrefix
• endur : VerbalPrefix

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instDecidableEqVerbalPrefix : DecidableEq VerbalPrefix

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instDecidableEqVerbalPrefix x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVerbalPrefix : BEq VerbalPrefix

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVerbalPrefix = { beq := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVerbalPrefix.beq }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVerbalPrefix.beq : VerbalPrefix → VerbalPrefix → Bool

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVerbalPrefix.beq x✝ y✝ = (x✝.ctorIdx == y✝.ctorIdx)

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVerbalPrefix.repr : VerbalPrefix → ℕ → Std.Format

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instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVerbalPrefix : Repr VerbalPrefix

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVerbalPrefix = { reprPrec := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVerbalPrefix.repr }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible : VerbalPrefix → Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading → Bool

Whether a prefix is compatible with a reading.

Key distinction: endur- is compatible with result/product nominals (where v is eventive and the entity is computed from the event) but NOT with simple entity nominals (where v is zero, no event variable). @cite{wood-2023} Ch. 6 (6.46)–(6.53).

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix.marg Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true
• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix.marg x✝ = false
• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true
• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent = true
• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result = true
• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.prefixCompatible Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VerbalPrefix.endur x✝ = false

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.marg_cen_only : prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.marg Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true ∧ prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.marg Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent = false ∧ prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.marg Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity = false

marg- only compatible with CEN (@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 6 (6.38)).

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.endur_pattern : prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true ∧ prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEvent = true ∧ prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.result = true ∧ prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity = false ∧ prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.endur Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleState = false

endur- compatible with CEN, SEN, and result/product RN, but not simple entity RN (@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 6 (6.46)–(6.53)).

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.marg_stricter_than_endur (r : Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading) : prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.marg r = true → prefixCompatible VerbalPrefix.endur r = true

marg- is strictly more restrictive than endur-.

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.borersGeneralization (nom : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.IcelandicNom) : Prop

Borer's Generalization: CEN reading entails the existence of a morphologically related verb with the same meaning.

@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 5 §5.1.5: This follows from two assumptions: (a) verbs are semantically special (they introduce event variables), (b) n cannot trigger root suppletion past v.

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.borersGeneralization nom = (nom.availableReadings.contains Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true → nom.baseVerb ≠ "")

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.borers_generalization_holds : ((List.filter (fun (n : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.IcelandicNom) => n.availableReadings.contains Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent) Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.allNoms).all fun (n : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.IcelandicNom) => n.baseVerb != "") = true

All CEN-capable nominals in the fragment have base verbs (Borer's Generalization holds).

structure Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.VaedaProperties : Type

-vaeða verbs are compounds: √VAEÐA adjoins directly to v. Because √VAEÐA is meaningless (like English do-support √DO), the root it compounds with must be categorized (n) first.

@cite{wood-2023} Ch. 6 (6.60): [v [n ... √ROOT n] [v √VAEÐA v]]

This structure entails:

• Root cannot idiosyncratically select complement PPs
• -vaeðing nominals never have idiosyncratic RN readings
• PP complements of -vaeða verbs are always compositional
• -vaeða verbs cannot select ApplP

• idiosyncraticPP : Bool

  Root can condition idiosyncratic complement PP?

• idiosyncraticRN : Bool

  Nominalization can have idiosyncratic RN reading?

• selectsApplP : Bool

  Verb can select ApplP?

• alwaysCompositional : Bool

  Meaning of nominalization always compositional?

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVaedaProperties : Repr VaedaProperties

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVaedaProperties = { reprPrec := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVaedaProperties.repr }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instReprVaedaProperties.repr : VaedaProperties → ℕ → Std.Format

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def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVaedaProperties.beq : VaedaProperties → VaedaProperties → Bool

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• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVaedaProperties.beq x✝¹ x✝ = false

instance Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVaedaProperties : BEq VaedaProperties

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVaedaProperties = { beq := Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.instBEqVaedaProperties.beq }

def Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.vaedaProps : VaedaProperties

-vaeða verbs have maximally restricted properties.

Equations

• Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.vaedaProps = { idiosyncraticPP := false, idiosyncraticRN := false, selectsApplP := false, alwaysCompositional := true }

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.vaeda_all_restrictions : vaedaProps.idiosyncraticPP = false ∧ vaedaProps.idiosyncraticRN = false ∧ vaedaProps.selectsApplP = false ∧ vaedaProps.alwaysCompositional = true

All -vaeða restrictions hold simultaneously.

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.opnun_connects_to_st_verb : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.stVerb = some Fragments.Icelandic.Predicates.opnast ∧ Fragments.Icelandic.Predicates.opnast.stType = Fragments.Icelandic.Predicates.StType.anticausative

opnun 'opening' connects to opnast 'open-ST' (anticausative). The nominalization is built on the same root as the -st verb; the -st voice morphology does not appear in the nominal (nominalizations lack Voice).

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.st_verb_nominalization_drops_voice : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.stVerb.isSome = true ∧ nomHasVoice = false

Anticausative -st verbs can be nominalized: the nominalization lacks Voice (hence no -st), but retains the root's meaning. @cite{wood-2023} Ch. 3: -st and nominalization both require non-agentive contexts, but the nominal achieves this by lacking Voice entirely rather than having non-agentive Voice.

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.voice_irrelevant_for_nom_reading : Fragments.Icelandic.Predicates.opnast.stType.voiceFlavor = Minimalism.VoiceFlavor.nonThematic ∧ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.availableReadings.contains Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true ∧ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.availableReadings.contains Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.simpleEntity = true

The Voice flavor of the -st verb is irrelevant for the nominal: nominalizations derive readings from v/n allosemy, not from Voice.

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.suffix_count : [Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.NomSuffix.un, Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.NomSuffix.ing, Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.NomSuffix.sla, Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.NomSuffix.stur, Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.NomSuffix.adur].length = 5

All nominalizing suffixes spell out the same head n. Different suffixes do NOT indicate different functional heads — this is allomorphy of n, not different morphemes. @cite{wood-2023} Ch. 2 (2.1), Ch. 3.

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.same_suffix_different_readings : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.suffix = Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.notkun.suffix ∧ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.availableReadings ≠ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.notkun.availableReadings

The same suffix (-un) can yield different readings: opnun has CEN + simple entity, notkun has CEN only. The reading is determined by allosemy, not by the suffix.

theorem Phenomena.Morphology.Studies.Wood2023.different_suffix_same_reading : Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.suffix ≠ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.pvottur.suffix ∧ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.opnun.availableReadings.contains Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true ∧ Fragments.Icelandic.Nominalizations.pvottur.availableReadings.contains Morphology.DM.Allosemy.NominalizationReading.complexEvent = true

Different suffixes can yield the same reading type: opnun (-un) and þvottur (-stur) both have CEN readings. The reading comes from v/n allosemy, not from the suffix.