@cite{pylkknen-2008} — Introducing Arguments

@cite{pylkknen-2008} @cite{cuervo-2003} @cite{barss-lasnik-1986}

Linguistic Inquiry Monographs 49. MIT Press.

Core Claims

1. High vs Low Applicatives: Applicative heads come in two semantic types. Low Appl merges below V, relating the applied argument to the theme (transfer-of-possession): [VP V [ApplP goal [Appl theme]]]. High Appl merges above VP, relating the applied argument to the event (benefactive): [VoiceP agent [Voice [ApplP benef [Appl [VP V theme]]]]].

2. Semantic type distinction: High Appl denotes an individual-event relation λx.λe. Appl(x,e). Low Appl denotes an individual-individual relation λx.λy.λf.λe. f(e,x) & theme(e,x) & to-the-possession(x,y).

3. Low recipient vs low source: Low applicatives split into recipient (ApplTo: transfer to applied arg) and source (ApplFrom: transfer from applied arg). English DOC is low recipient; Korean theft constructions and Hebrew possessor datives are low source.

4. C-command asymmetries: In both configurations, the applied argument asymmetrically c-commands the theme. This derives the @cite{barss-lasnik-1986} binding asymmetries structurally.

5. Cross-linguistic variation: English, Japanese, and Korean have LOW Appl; Bantu languages (Chaga, Luganda, Venda) and Albanian have HIGH Appl.

Diagnostics (Table 2.1)

Test	High	Low
1. Can unergatives be applicativized?	Yes	No
2. Can static verbs be applicativized?	Yes	No
3. Depictive modification of applied arg?	Yes	No
4. Resultative cooccurrence with applicative?	Yes	No

Cross-references

• Studies/Larson1988.lean: VP shell predecessor — same c-command hierarchy (IO > DO) derived differently. Bridge theorem below proves convergence.
• Studies/Kratzer1996.lean Part III: Voice-based tree derivations (transitive, anticausative) using the same infrastructure.

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.voice_ag_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.voice_ag_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.Voice [Minimalism.Cat.V] "Voice[AG]" 400

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.appl_low_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.appl_low_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.Appl [Minimalism.Cat.D] "Appl[LOW]" 402

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.appl_high_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.appl_high_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.Appl [Minimalism.Cat.V] "Appl[HI]" 403

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.V_sent_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.V_sent_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.V [Minimalism.Cat.Appl] "sent" 404

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.V_eat_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.V_eat_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.V [Minimalism.Cat.D] "eat" 405

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_john_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_john_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.D [] "John" 406

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_mary_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_mary_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.D [] "Mary" 407

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_letter_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_letter_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.D [] "a letter" 408

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_wife_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_wife_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.D [] "wife" 409

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_food_t : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.DP_food_t = Minimalism.mkLeafPhon Minimalism.Cat.D [] "food" 410

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ditransitiveTree : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

Ditransitive with low applicative: "John sent Mary a letter"

[VoiceP John [Voice' Voice_AG [VP sent [ApplP Mary [Appl' Appl_LOW [DP a letter]]]]]]

Low Appl merges below V: V takes ApplP as complement. The goal (Mary) is in Spec-ApplP, c-commanding the theme (a letter) in complement of Appl. This derives the @cite{barss-lasnik-1986} asymmetry that IO asymmetrically c-commands DO.

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def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.benefactiveTree : Minimalism.SyntacticObject

High applicative benefactive (Chaga pattern): "he ate food for wife"

[VoiceP John [Voice' Voice_AG [ApplP wife [Appl' Appl_HIGH [VP eat [DP food]]]]]]

High Appl merges above VP: Appl takes VP as complement. The benefactive (wife) is in Spec-ApplP, relating to the event (not the theme). High Appl is attested in Bantu languages (Chaga, Luganda, Venda) and Albanian, but NOT in English.

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theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ditransitive_agent_ccommands_goal : Minimalism.cCommandsInB ditransitiveTree DP_john_t DP_mary_t = true

Agent c-commands goal.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ditransitive_agent_ccommands_theme : Minimalism.cCommandsInB ditransitiveTree DP_john_t DP_letter_t = true

Agent c-commands theme.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ditransitive_goal_ccommands_theme : Minimalism.cCommandsInB ditransitiveTree DP_mary_t DP_letter_t = true

Goal c-commands theme — the @cite{barss-lasnik-1986} asymmetry derived structurally from V selecting ApplP.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ditransitive_theme_not_ccommands_goal : Minimalism.cCommandsInB ditransitiveTree DP_letter_t DP_mary_t = false

Theme does NOT c-command goal: the asymmetry is structural.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.benefactive_benef_ccommands_theme : Minimalism.cCommandsInB benefactiveTree DP_wife_t DP_food_t = true

Benefactive c-commands theme.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.benefactive_theme_not_ccommands_benef : Minimalism.cCommandsInB benefactiveTree DP_food_t DP_wife_t = false

Theme does NOT c-command benefactive.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.send_is_low_appl : Minimalism.containsB ditransitiveTree appl_low_t = true

Low applicative marks the ditransitive.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.eat_is_high_appl : Minimalism.containsB benefactiveTree appl_high_t = true

High applicative marks the benefactive.

The lexical items appl_low_t and appl_high_t correspond to ApplType values from the theory layer. The ditransitive uses a low recipient applicative (English DOC = transfer to); the benefactive uses a high applicative (Chaga = individual-event relation).

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.lowApplType : Minimalism.ApplType

The low applicative head corresponds to a recipient applicative.

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.lowApplType = Minimalism.ApplType.lowRecipient

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.highApplType : Minimalism.ApplType

The high applicative head corresponds to a high applicative.

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.highApplType = Minimalism.ApplType.high

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ditransitive_appl_is_low : lowApplType.isLow = true

The ditransitive uses a low applicative.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.benefactive_appl_is_high : highApplType.isLow = false

The benefactive uses a high applicative.

Cross-linguistic classification (§2.1.2–§2.1.4)

@cite{pylkknen-2008} tests the high/low distinction in six languages using four diagnostics. The diagnostics cluster into two groups, confirming the typological split.

structure Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.ApplClassification : Type

A language's applicative classification with diagnostic evidence.

• language : String
• applType : Minimalism.ApplType
• unergativeOK : Option Bool

  Can unergatives be applicativized? (§2.1.2)

• staticVerbOK : Option Bool

  Can static verbs be applicativized? (§2.1.2)

• depictiveOK : Option Bool

  Is the applied argument available for depictive modification? (§2.1.3)

• resultativeOK : Option Bool

  Can resultatives cooccur with the applicative? (§2.1.4)

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instReprApplClassification.repr : ApplClassification → ℕ → Std.Format

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instance Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instReprApplClassification : Repr ApplClassification

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instReprApplClassification = { reprPrec := Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instReprApplClassification.repr }

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instDecidableEqApplClassification.decEq (x✝ x✝¹ : ApplClassification) : Decidable (x✝ = x✝¹)

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instance Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instDecidableEqApplClassification : DecidableEq ApplClassification

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instDecidableEqApplClassification = Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instDecidableEqApplClassification.decEq

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instBEqApplClassification.beq : ApplClassification → ApplClassification → Bool

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• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instBEqApplClassification.beq x✝¹ x✝ = false

instance Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instBEqApplClassification : BEq ApplClassification

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instBEqApplClassification = { beq := Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.instBEqApplClassification.beq }

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.diagnosticPredictsHigh (d : ApplClassification) : Bool

Do the diagnostics predict a HIGH applicative? At least one "yes" on unergatives or static verbs → high.

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.diagnosticPredictsHigh d = (d.unergativeOK == some true || d.staticVerbOK == some true)

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.diagnosticsConsistent (d : ApplClassification) : Bool

Diagnostic prediction is consistent with the annotated classification.

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.diagnosticsConsistent d = (Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.diagnosticPredictsHigh d == !d.applType.isLow)

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.english_appl : ApplClassification

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def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.japanese_appl : ApplClassification

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def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.korean_appl : ApplClassification

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.korean_appl = { language := "Korean", applType := Minimalism.ApplType.lowRecipient, unergativeOK := some false, staticVerbOK := some false }

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.luganda_appl : ApplClassification

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def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.venda_appl : ApplClassification

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.venda_appl = { language := "Venda", applType := Minimalism.ApplType.high, unergativeOK := some true, staticVerbOK := some true }

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.albanian_appl : ApplClassification

Equations

• Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.albanian_appl = { language := "Albanian", applType := Minimalism.ApplType.high, unergativeOK := some true, staticVerbOK := some true }

def Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.allLanguages : List ApplClassification

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theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.six_languages : allLanguages.length = 6

Six languages are classified.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.english_not_high : diagnosticPredictsHigh english_appl = false

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.japanese_not_high : diagnosticPredictsHigh japanese_appl = false

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.korean_not_high : diagnosticPredictsHigh korean_appl = false

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.luganda_is_high : diagnosticPredictsHigh luganda_appl = true

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.venda_is_high : diagnosticPredictsHigh venda_appl = true

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.albanian_is_high : diagnosticPredictsHigh albanian_appl = true

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.all_diagnostics_consistent : allLanguages.all diagnosticsConsistent = true

The diagnostics are consistent with the annotated classification for all six languages.

@cite{larson-1988}'s VP shell is the precursor of the modern Voice + Applicative decomposition. While the tree shapes differ (Larson uses one VP-shell layer; modern theory uses Voice and Appl heads), the c-command hierarchy among DP arguments is identical: agent > goal/IO > theme/DO.

theorem Phenomena.ArgumentStructure.Studies.Pylkkanen2008.larson_modern_same_hierarchy : Minimalism.cCommandsInB Larson1988.docDativeShift.final Larson1988.DP_mary Larson1988.DP_letter = true ∧ Minimalism.cCommandsInB Larson1988.docDativeShift.final Larson1988.DP_letter Larson1988.DP_mary = false ∧ Minimalism.cCommandsInB ditransitiveTree DP_mary_t DP_letter_t = true ∧ Minimalism.cCommandsInB ditransitiveTree DP_letter_t DP_mary_t = false

@cite{larson-1988}'s DOC and the modern Voice + low-Appl derivation produce the same c-command hierarchy: IO asymmetrically c-commands DO.

This proves that @cite{larson-1988} and @cite{pylkknen-2008}, despite different decompositions, converge on the same structural prediction for @cite{barss-lasnik-1986} asymmetries.