Indonesian Voice System

@cite{sneddon-1996}

Indonesian distinguishes three productive voice prefixes on verbs:

• meN- (agent voice): the canonical active — subject = agent, object = patient. Allomorphs: me-, mem-, men-, meny-, meng-, menge-.
• di- (patient voice / passive): subject = patient, agent optionally expressed via oleh 'by' PP or postverbal DP.
• ber- (middle voice): detransitivizing prefix producing reflexive, dispositional/passive, anticausative, and incorporation readings (@cite{beavers-udayana-2022}).

There is also an unmarked object voice (OV) where the agent is a preverbal pronoun/DP and the patient follows the bare root, but we focus on the prefixed forms here.

Passive types (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.27–3.32)

Indonesian has two structurally distinct passive constructions:

• Type one (§3.27): *di-*verb + (oleh) + agent. Agent is 3rd person or noun.
• Type two (§3.28): agent (pronoun) + bare verb. Agent is 1st/2nd person.

dia/mereka (3rd person pronouns) straddle both types (§3.29–3.30). ter- verbs force type one for all agents, with obligatory oleh (§3.32).

Parametric decomposition

Under the Minimalist analysis of @cite{alexiadou-schaefer-2015}, the three voices occupy distinct positions in the ±D / ±λx parameter space:

Voice	±D	±λx	Notes
meN-	+D	+λx (arg)	Active: projects agent specifier
di-	+D	+∃x	Passive: agent existentially bound but semantically active
ber-	?	?	Underspecified: both params determined by context

The key property of ber- is underspecification: the same morpheme produces agentive-like behavior (incorporation middles, where the agent is the surface subject) and expletive-like behavior (dispositional middles, where the patient is the surface subject).

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.menVoice : Interfaces.VoiceEntry

Agent voice meN-: promotes agent to subject (pivot).

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.menVoice = { name := "meN-", promotes := Interfaces.PivotTarget.agent }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.diVoice : Interfaces.VoiceEntry

Patient voice di-: promotes patient to subject.

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.diVoice = { name := "di-", promotes := Interfaces.PivotTarget.patient }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.berVoice : Interfaces.VoiceEntry

Middle voice ber-: promotes patient to subject in dispositional/ passive/anticausative readings; promotes agent in incorporation readings. Default pivot target is patient (the more common case).

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.berVoice = { name := "ber-", promotes := Interfaces.PivotTarget.patient }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.indonesianVoiceSystem : Interfaces.VoiceSystemProfile

Indonesian voice system profile: three-way asymmetrical system. meN- is the unmarked active; di- and ber- are marked.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.menParams : Minimalism.VoiceParams

meN- parameters: active Voice[+D, +λx]. Projects a full DP external argument and introduces agent semantics.

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.menParams = { selectsSpecifier := some true, extArgSemantics := some Minimalism.ExternalArgSemantics.thematicArgument }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.diParams : Minimalism.VoiceParams

di- parameters: Voice[+D, +∃x]. Projects a specifier (weak implicit argument e[−D]) and introduces an existentially bound agent — the agent is entailed to exist but is syntactically defective (lacking [+D]).

Unlike English passive Voice (which is [+D, −λx] in the @cite{alexiadou-schaefer-2015} typology), di-'s implicit argument is semantically active: it licenses oleh 'by' phrases and controls rationale clause PRO (@cite{beavers-udayana-2022}: §2.1). This places di- in the [+D, +∃x] cell — specifier selected, agent existentially bound — rather than the [+D, −λx] cell occupied by English passive and Romance anticausative SE.

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.diParams = { selectsSpecifier := some true, extArgSemantics := some Minimalism.ExternalArgSemantics.thematicExistential }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.berParams : Minimalism.VoiceParams

ber- parameters: underspecified Voice[±D, ±λx]. Neither ±D nor ±λx is fixed — the actual setting is determined by independent argument realization strategies (incorporation vs. functional application) and lexical semantic/pragmatic factors (@cite{beavers-udayana-2022}: §3).

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.berParams = { selectsSpecifier := none, extArgSemantics := none }

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.voice_count : indonesianVoiceSystem.voiceCount = 3

The Indonesian voice system has exactly three voices.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.promotes_agent : indonesianVoiceSystem.promotesRole Interfaces.PivotTarget.agent = true

The system promotes both agent and patient roles.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.promotes_patient : indonesianVoiceSystem.promotesRole Interfaces.PivotTarget.patient = true

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.men_fully_specified : menParams.isFullySpecified = true

meN- is fully specified; ber- is not.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.di_fully_specified : diParams.isFullySpecified = true

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.ber_underspecified : berParams.isFullySpecified = false

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.men_is_agentive : menParams = Minimalism.VoiceFlavor.agentive.toParams

meN- maps to the same cell as Minimalist agentive Voice.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.di_has_existential_agent : diParams.extArgSemantics = some Minimalism.ExternalArgSemantics.thematicExistential

di- occupies the [+D, +∃x] cell — a specifier that introduces an existentially bound participant. This is distinct from English passive Voice [+D, −λx] and Finnish impersonal [−D, +∃x].

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.di_selects_specifier : diParams.selectsSpecifier = some true

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.ber_compatible_with_all (f : Minimalism.VoiceFlavor) : berParams.isCompatibleWith f.toParams = true

ber- is compatible with EVERY named VoiceFlavor — the defining property of an underspecified voice morpheme.

inductive Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.PassiveType : Type

Indonesian has two structurally distinct passive constructions (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.27–3.28, following Dardjowidjojo 1978).

• Type one (§3.27): *di-*verb + (oleh) + agent. Subject (patient) + **di-**verb + (oleh) + Agent. Used when the agent is 3rd person, a noun, or unexpressed. Example: Saya dijemput oleh dia. 'I was met by him.'

• Type two (§3.28): agent (pronoun) + bare verb. Subject (patient) + Agent (pronoun) + Verb. Used when the agent is a 1st or 2nd person pronoun. Example: Dia kami jemput. 'He was met by us.' With aku/kamu, bound forms ku-/kau- are used: Buku ini sudah kubaca. 'I've read this book.'

• typeOne : PassiveType

  *di-*verb + (oleh) + agent. Verb retains di- prefix.

• typeTwo : PassiveType

  Agent + bare verb. No prefix on verb; agent is preverbal.

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqPassiveType : DecidableEq PassiveType

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqPassiveType x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqPassiveType.beq : PassiveType → PassiveType → Bool

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqPassiveType.beq x✝ y✝ = (x✝.ctorIdx == y✝.ctorIdx)

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqPassiveType : BEq PassiveType

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqPassiveType = { beq := Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqPassiveType.beq }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprPassiveType.repr : PassiveType → ℕ → Std.Format

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprPassiveType : Repr PassiveType

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprPassiveType = { reprPrec := Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprPassiveType.repr }

inductive Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP : Type

Classification of the agent DP in a passive clause, determining which passive type(s) are available. Sneddon (§3.29) draws a 2×2 diagram with "Box A" (type one agents) and "Box B" (type two agents); dia and mereka straddle both boxes.

The key generalization: person determines type two eligibility (all pronouns can appear in type two), while type one requires the agent to be 3rd person or a full noun.

• firstPerson : AgentDP

  1st person pronoun: saya (sg), kami (pl excl), kita (pl incl). Type two only. Bound form ku- for aku (§3.28).

• secondPerson : AgentDP

  2nd person pronoun: kamu, Anda, etc. Type two only. Bound form kau- for kamu (§3.28).

• thirdPronoun : AgentDP

  3rd person pronoun: dia (sg), mereka (pl). Both types available — straddles Box A and Box B (§3.29–3.30).

• noun : AgentDP

  Full noun or proper name used as agent. Type one only (§3.29). But personal names and kinship terms used as pronoun substitutes (§3.31) allow type two.

• unexpressed : AgentDP

  No agent expressed. Type one only (§3.27).

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqAgentDP : DecidableEq AgentDP

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqAgentDP x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqAgentDP.beq : AgentDP → AgentDP → Bool

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqAgentDP.beq x✝ y✝ = (x✝.ctorIdx == y✝.ctorIdx)

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqAgentDP : BEq AgentDP

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqAgentDP = { beq := Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqAgentDP.beq }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprAgentDP.repr : AgentDP → ℕ → Std.Format

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprAgentDP : Repr AgentDP

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprAgentDP = { reprPrec := Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprAgentDP.repr }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.allowsTypeOne : AgentDP → Bool

Whether passive type one (*di-*verb) is available for this agent. Type one requires the agent to be in "Box A": 3rd person (pronoun or noun), or absent (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.27, §3.29).

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.firstPerson.allowsTypeOne = false
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.secondPerson.allowsTypeOne = false
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.thirdPronoun.allowsTypeOne = true
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.noun.allowsTypeOne = true
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.unexpressed.allowsTypeOne = true

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.allowsTypeTwo : AgentDP → Bool

Whether passive type two (agent + bare verb) is available. Type two requires the agent to be a pronoun, in "Box B" (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.28, §3.29).

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.firstPerson.allowsTypeTwo = true
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.secondPerson.allowsTypeTwo = true
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.thirdPronoun.allowsTypeTwo = true
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.noun.allowsTypeTwo = false
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.AgentDP.unexpressed.allowsTypeTwo = false

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.agent_has_passive (a : AgentDP) : (a.allowsTypeOne || decide (a.allowsTypeTwo = true)) = true

Every agent allows at least one passive type.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.only_third_pronoun_allows_both : ([AgentDP.firstPerson, AgentDP.secondPerson, AgentDP.thirdPronoun, AgentDP.noun, AgentDP.unexpressed].all fun (a : AgentDP) => (a.allowsTypeOne && a.allowsTypeTwo) == (a == AgentDP.thirdPronoun)) = true

Only 3rd person pronouns allow BOTH types — they are the straddling case in Sneddon's diagram (§3.29–3.30).

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.first_person_type_two_only : AgentDP.firstPerson.allowsTypeOne = false ∧ AgentDP.firstPerson.allowsTypeTwo = true

1st and 2nd person pronouns are type-two-only — type one with these agents is ungrammatical (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.29 fn. 2).

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.second_person_type_two_only : AgentDP.secondPerson.allowsTypeOne = false ∧ AgentDP.secondPerson.allowsTypeTwo = true

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.noun_type_one_only : AgentDP.noun.allowsTypeOne = true ∧ AgentDP.noun.allowsTypeTwo = false

Nouns are type-one-only — they cannot appear in the preverbal agent position of type two (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.29).

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.unexpressed_type_one_only : AgentDP.unexpressed.allowsTypeOne = true ∧ AgentDP.unexpressed.allowsTypeTwo = false

Agentless passives use type one exclusively — there is no type two without an agent (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.27).

inductive Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.VoicePrefixConstraint : Type

Whether a voice prefix restricts passive type selection. ter- and ke-...-an verbs allow only passive type one, even with 1st/2nd person agents — oleh becomes obligatory (§3.32). Regular di- verbs allow both types per the usual person rules.

• unconstrained : VoicePrefixConstraint

  Normal passive type selection rules apply.

• typeOneOnly : VoicePrefixConstraint

  Only passive type one available, regardless of agent person. Applies to ter- and ke-...-an verbs (§3.32).

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqVoicePrefixConstraint : DecidableEq VoicePrefixConstraint

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqVoicePrefixConstraint x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqVoicePrefixConstraint : BEq VoicePrefixConstraint

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqVoicePrefixConstraint = { beq := Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqVoicePrefixConstraint.beq }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqVoicePrefixConstraint.beq : VoicePrefixConstraint → VoicePrefixConstraint → Bool

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instBEqVoicePrefixConstraint.beq x✝ y✝ = (x✝.ctorIdx == y✝.ctorIdx)

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprVoicePrefixConstraint.repr : VoicePrefixConstraint → ℕ → Std.Format

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

instance Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprVoicePrefixConstraint : Repr VoicePrefixConstraint

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprVoicePrefixConstraint = { reprPrec := Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.instReprVoicePrefixConstraint.repr }

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.terVoiceConstraint : VoicePrefixConstraint

ter- verbs force type one passive — the preverbal agent position of type two is unavailable (@cite{sneddon-1996} §3.32).

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.terVoiceConstraint = Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.VoicePrefixConstraint.typeOneOnly

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.diVoiceConstraint : VoicePrefixConstraint

Regular di- verbs have no constraint on passive type selection.

Equations

• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.diVoiceConstraint = Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.VoicePrefixConstraint.unconstrained

def Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.effectivePassiveTypes (c : VoicePrefixConstraint) (a : AgentDP) : List PassiveType

The effective passive types available, given a voice prefix constraint and an agent DP.

Under .typeOneOnly (ter- verbs, §3.32), type one is forced for ALL agents regardless of person — the normal person restriction on type one is overridden. oleh becomes obligatory when the agent is a pronoun.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.
• Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.effectivePassiveTypes Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.VoicePrefixConstraint.typeOneOnly a = [Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.PassiveType.typeOne]

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.ter_forces_type_one_for_first : effectivePassiveTypes VoicePrefixConstraint.typeOneOnly AgentDP.firstPerson = [PassiveType.typeOne]

Under ter- constraint, even 1st person agents use type one — overriding the normal rule that 1st person → type two. oleh is obligatory (§3.32). Example: Masalah itu belum terselesaikan oleh kami. 'We haven't yet been able to settle that matter.' (§1.272).

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.ter_always_type_one (a : AgentDP) : effectivePassiveTypes VoicePrefixConstraint.typeOneOnly a = [PassiveType.typeOne]

ter- constraint forces type one for ALL agent types.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.unconstrained_third_pronoun_both : effectivePassiveTypes VoicePrefixConstraint.unconstrained AgentDP.thirdPronoun = [PassiveType.typeOne, PassiveType.typeTwo]

Under no constraint, 3rd person pronouns get both types.

theorem Fragments.Indonesian.VoiceSystem.unconstrained_first_type_two : effectivePassiveTypes VoicePrefixConstraint.unconstrained AgentDP.firstPerson = [PassiveType.typeTwo]

Under no constraint, 1st person gets only type two.