Dargwa (Tanti / Muira) Complex Predicates @cite{sumbatova-2021}

@cite{kalyakin-2026}

Complex verbs in Dargwa consist of a light verb (LV, = v) and a lexical stem (NV, = nominal root inside VP). The lexical stems are highly variable: noun stems, adjectives, numerals, verbs, or ideophones. Often the lexical element does not occur independently.

This is the structural basis for @cite{kalyakin-2026}'s analysis of v-stranding VP ellipsis (vVPE) in Muira Dargwa: the light verb (= v) survives while its complement (= VP, containing the nominal root) is elided. The theoretical analysis (mismatch predictions, root position mapping, again diagnostics) lives in the study file Phenomena/Ellipsis/Studies/Kalyakin2026.lean.

Light Verbs (§4.5.1 of @cite{sumbatova-2021})

The most common light verbs (ex. 31a):

• b-arq'- 'do, make'
• b-iχ- 'become'
• w-ik'- 'speak'

Other light verbs include b-at- 'leave', b-ič- 'fall', b-ig- 'sit down', aq- 'hang', aʁ- 'reach', b-ač'- 'come', etc. (ex. 31b).

Connection to vVPE (@cite{kalyakin-2026})

Under vVPE, the light verb (v head) survives while the nominal root (in VP) is elided. This directly explains why:

1. The light verb is overt in the ellipsis site
2. Causative alternations (which differ only in Voice) are tolerated
3. Antipassive roots (v-adjoined) cannot be elided

structure Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.LightVerb : Type

A Dargwa light verb entry. The genderSlot field indicates whether the light verb carries a gender agreement prefix (most do).

• form : String

  Citation form (with gender prefix placeholder b-)

• gloss : String

  English gloss

• genderSlot : Bool

  Does this LV carry a gender prefix?

• boundToComplex : Bool

  Is this LV used only in complex predicates (not independently)?

instance Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprLightVerb : Repr LightVerb

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprLightVerb = { reprPrec := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprLightVerb.repr }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprLightVerb.repr : LightVerb → Nat → Std.Format

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instance Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instBEqLightVerb : BEq LightVerb

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instBEqLightVerb = { beq := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instBEqLightVerb.beq }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instBEqLightVerb.beq : LightVerb → LightVerb → Bool

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• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instBEqLightVerb.beq x✝¹ x✝ = false

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.arq : LightVerb

b-arq'- 'do, make' — the most frequent LV.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.arq = { form := "b-arq'-", gloss := "do, make", genderSlot := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ix : LightVerb

b-iχ- 'become' — inchoative/change-of-state LV.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ix = { form := "b-iχ-", gloss := "become", genderSlot := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ik : LightVerb

w-ik'- 'speak' — speech-act LV.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ik = { form := "w-ik'-", gloss := "speak", genderSlot := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.at_ : LightVerb

b-at- 'leave'.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.at_ = { form := "b-at-", gloss := "leave", genderSlot := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ic : LightVerb

b-ič- 'fall'.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ic = { form := "b-ič-", gloss := "fall", genderSlot := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ig : LightVerb

b-ig- 'sit down'.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ig = { form := "b-ig-", gloss := "sit down", genderSlot := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.aq : LightVerb

aq- 'hang'. No gender prefix.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.aq = { form := "aq-", gloss := "hang", genderSlot := false }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ar : LightVerb

aʁ- 'reach'. No gender prefix.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ar = { form := "aʁ-", gloss := "reach", genderSlot := false }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.uq : LightVerb

b-uq- — only used within complex verbs.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.uq = { form := "b-uq-", gloss := "LV (bound)", genderSlot := true, boundToComplex := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.aq_bound : LightVerb

aq- — only used within complex verbs (distinct from 'hang').

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.aq_bound = { form := "aq-", gloss := "LV (bound)", genderSlot := false, boundToComplex := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ik_bound : LightVerb

b-ik- — only used within complex verbs.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ik_bound = { form := "b-ik-", gloss := "LV (bound)", genderSlot := true, boundToComplex := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.art : LightVerb

art- — only used within complex verbs.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.art = { form := "art-", gloss := "LV (bound)", genderSlot := false, boundToComplex := true }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.allLightVerbs : List LightVerb

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structure Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ComplexPredicate : Type

A complex predicate: lexical stem + light verb. Examples from @cite{sumbatova-2021} (32):

• taman 'end' (N) + b-arq' 'do' = 'finish'
• ħaˁdur 'ready' (ADJ) + b-arq' 'do' = 'prepare'
• č'u 'two' (NUM) + b-ut' 'cut' = 'divide by two'

• lexicalStem : String

  Lexical stem (nominal root / NV)

• stemCategory : String

  Part of speech of the lexical stem

• lightVerb : LightVerb

  Light verb (LV = v head)

• meaning : String

  Combined meaning

instance Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprComplexPredicate : Repr ComplexPredicate

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprComplexPredicate = { reprPrec := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprComplexPredicate.repr }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprComplexPredicate.repr : ComplexPredicate → Nat → Std.Format

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.finish_ : ComplexPredicate

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.finish_ = { lexicalStem := "taman", stemCategory := "noun", lightVerb := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.arq, meaning := "finish" }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.prepare : ComplexPredicate

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.prepare = { lexicalStem := "ħaˁdur", stemCategory := "adjective", lightVerb := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.arq, meaning := "prepare" }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.divideByTwo : ComplexPredicate

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.cough : ComplexPredicate

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.cough = { lexicalStem := "qeħ", stemCategory := "ideophone", lightVerb := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.ik, meaning := "cough" }

structure Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.CausativeEntry : Type

Dargwa has a productive causative morpheme -aq. Causatives from intransitives are transitive (causee = ABS). Causatives from transitives make the causee appear in the elative case.

This is the construction that undergoes alternation under vVPE in @cite{kalyakin-2026}: inchoative → causative and vice versa.

• baseVerb : String
• baseGloss : String
• baseTransitive : Bool
• causativeForm : String
• causeeCase : String

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprCausativeEntry.repr : CausativeEntry → Nat → Std.Format

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instance Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprCausativeEntry : Repr CausativeEntry

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprCausativeEntry = { reprPrec := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprCausativeEntry.repr }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causStandUp : CausativeEntry

(65) neš-li durħaˁ hajc:-aq-ur 'Mother caused the boy to stand up.' Base: intransitive. Causee: absolutive.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causStandUp = { baseVerb := "hajc:-", baseGloss := "stand up", baseTransitive := false, causativeForm := "hajc:-aq-", causeeCase := "absolutive" }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causDig : CausativeEntry

(66) t:at:i-li durħaˁ-li-c:e-r qu b-urq:-aq-ub 'Father called the boy to dig the garden.' Base: transitive. Causee: elative.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causDig = { baseVerb := "b-urq:-", baseGloss := "dig", baseTransitive := true, causativeForm := "b-urq:-aq-", causeeCase := "elative" }

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.intr_causative_abs_causee : causStandUp.baseTransitive = false ∧ causStandUp.causeeCase = "absolutive"

Intransitive causatives: causee in absolutive.

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.tr_causative_elat_causee : causDig.baseTransitive = true ∧ causDig.causeeCase = "elative"

Transitive causatives: causee in elative.

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.antipassive : Core.Alternation.ValencyAlternation

Dargwa antipassive (A-lability): the A-argument takes absolutive case and the P-argument is demoted to ergative (a non-core ergative that never controls person or gender agreement). Only available in imperfective forms. Affective verbs are excluded.

This maps to @cite{creissels-2025}'s antipassivization: A is maintained (becomes S), P is denucleativized.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.antipassive = Core.Alternation.antipassivization

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.pLability : Core.Alternation.AmbitransitivityType

Dargwa P-lability: many transitive verbs can be used intransitively without morphological marking (@cite{sumbatova-2021} §4.7.3, ex. 87). The patient is dropped; the remaining S corresponds to the initial A. This is characteristic of verbs denoting situations that can occur with or without an agent (break, open, fill).

Maps to @cite{creissels-2025}'s P_ambitransitivity: uncoded decausativization where S = initial P.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.pLability = Core.Alternation.AmbitransitivityType.P_ambitransitivity

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causativeAlternation : Core.Alternation.ValencyAlternation

Dargwa causative (-aq) applied to intransitive bases maps to Creissels' causativization: S is maintained as P, a new A (causer) is introduced.

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causativeAlternation = Core.Alternation.causativization

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.antipassive_decreases : antipassive.isValencyDecreasing = true

The antipassive is valency-decreasing (P is denucleativized).

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.causative_increases : causativeAlternation.isValencyIncreasing = true

The causative is valency-increasing (new A is introduced).

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.antipassive_causative_inverse : antipassive.isValencyDecreasing = true ∧ causativeAlternation.isValencyIncreasing = true

The antipassive and causative are structural inverses: one removes a core term, the other adds one.

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.most_lvs_have_gender : (List.filter (fun (x : LightVerb) => x.genderSlot) allLightVerbs).length ≥ (List.filter (fun (lv : LightVerb) => !lv.genderSlot) allLightVerbs).length

Most light verbs carry a gender prefix slot.

theorem Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.some_lvs_bound : (List.filter (fun (x : LightVerb) => x.boundToComplex) allLightVerbs).length ≥ 1

Some light verbs are bound (only used in complex predicates).

structure Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.AnnotatedCPr : Type

A complex predicate annotated with its NV root position, following Marantz (2009a;b, 2013) as applied to Dargwa by @cite{kalyakin-2026} §2.2.

Uses RootPosition from Core.Lexical.RootFeatures:

• .complement: change-of-state roots — wana 'warm', hark 'open'
• .adjoined: manner/activity roots — duc' 'run', taˤh 'jump'

The vVPE eligibility implications are derived in the study file.

• lexicalStem : String
• stemGloss : String
• rootPosition : RootPosition
• lightVerb : LightVerb
• meaning : String

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprAnnotatedCPr.repr : AnnotatedCPr → Nat → Std.Format

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instance Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprAnnotatedCPr : Repr AnnotatedCPr

Equations

• Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprAnnotatedCPr = { reprPrec := Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.instReprAnnotatedCPr.repr }

def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.warmUp : AnnotatedCPr

wana AGR-arq'- 'to warm smth. up' (exx. 3, 8a, 64, 66). NV wana 'warm' is a change-of-state root → object-adjoined.

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.praiseCPr : AnnotatedCPr

gap AGR-arq'- 'to praise' (exx. 9, 17). NV gap 'praise' is a change-of-state root → object-adjoined.

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.openCPr : AnnotatedCPr

hark AGR-arq'- 'to open' (ex. 52). NV hark 'open' is a change-of-state root → object-adjoined.

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.calmCPr : AnnotatedCPr

parʁat AGR-arq'- 'to calm' (exx. 36, 37, 69). NV parʁat 'calm' is a change-of-state root → object-adjoined.

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.repairCPr : AnnotatedCPr

dawk AGR-irq'- 'to repair' (exx. 84–86). NV dawk 'repaired' is a change-of-state root → object-adjoined.

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.runCPr : AnnotatedCPr

duc' Ø-uq- 'to run' (ex. 58). Activity root → v-adjoined.

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def Fragments.Dargwa.ComplexPredicates.jumpCPr : AnnotatedCPr

taˤh Ø-uq- 'to jump' (ex. 57). Activity root → v-adjoined.

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